Rotating high-density fusion reactor for aneutronic and neutronic fusion

ABSTRACT

A fusion device produces fusion of neutral atoms and ions in an “aneutronic fusion” manner without neutrons as products utilizes strong ion-neutral coupling at high neutral densities. Ions and neutrals rotate together in a cylindrical chamber due to frequent collisions. High magnetic forces make the attainment of high rotation energy possible; the magnetic field in a medium can be set at very high values because of the absence of magnetic charges. The repeated acceleration by strong magnetic forces in the azimuthal direction makes possible very high ion velocity. Fusion takes place mainly between neutral particles. This approach can be applied to fusion with neutrons as well. Conventional fusion schemes and neutron sources can be realized using the principles described above in the generation of neutrals of high energies and densities.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS AND CLAIM FOR PRIORITY

This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) provisionalapplication Ser. No. 61/776,592 filed Mar. 11, 2013. This application isalso a continuation-in-part of copending application Ser. No. 12/850,633filed Aug. 5, 2010, which is a continuation-in-part of application Ser.No. 12/783,550 filed on May 19, 2010, which claims priority under 35U.S.C. § 119(e) from provisional application Ser. No. 61/179,625 filedon May 19, 2009, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein byreference in their entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

This invention describes an energy technology which utilizes neutrals toundergo fusion. It relates to the field of energy production fromnuclear fusion in which two atoms fuse together into a third atom withthe resultant release of energy, a consequence of mass being convertedinto energy.

This invention provides a new approach to the production of fusionenergy using neutrals instead of charged particles. It describes howneutrals can be accelerated in a compact rotating configuration, therebyachieving repeated interactions among themselves.

2. Background

Fusion research has been going on since 1950's and the prospect for acommercial reactor is still many years away. The confinement of chargedparticles, the presence of instabilities and the large amount of energyrequired to sustain the reacting system at high temperatures all makethis into one of the most challenging world-wide efforts. Manyconfigurations have been proposed and tried to confine charged particleswhich are accelerated by electromagnetic means. No simple low-costreactors have been realized today.

The present invention chooses to pursue fusion among neutrals in orderto achieve very high density of particles for interactions, e.g. fourorders of magnitude higher than is possible with charged particles. Ituses the strong magnetic force (several thousands of newtons) on acurrent element to drive neutrals through the principle of ion-neutralcoupling. The simple geometry and the compactness of the device makes ita breakthrough in the concept on fusion. Unlike charged particles,neutrals do not experience Coulomb repulsion as they approach each otheruntil they reach subatomic dimensions. The cross sections ofneutral-neutral interactions are therefore higher.

The high density of neutrals makes it possible to produce energy at asignificant rate for commercial application. The rate of fusion isproportional to the square of the density. This technology is differentfrom the present day usage of charged particles for fusion, where it isdifficult to achieve high density due to the energy requirement onionization and instabilities of a charged medium.

The high density of interacting particles makes it possible to attemptclean fusion where neutrons are not in the products. The advantages ofsuch a fusion reactor are numerous, one of which is the siting ofreactors in urban areas. Others are environmental considerationsincluding low amount of nuclear wastes, low cost of fuels and thereplacement of hydrocarbons as fuels, thereby eliminating the emissionof greenhouse gases.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This device operates at high neutral densities in order to increase therate of fusion reactions even for low cross sections of interactingelements. This rate is proportional to the square of neutral densities.In one embodiment these neutrals are driven to high velocities by anon-mechanical plasma rotor in an annular region bounded by twoconcentric electrodes in an axial magnetic field. A DC voltage isimposed between these electrodes to impart a radial DC current I whichproduces a force F=I L×B in the azimuthal direction where L is theradial vector of length L along which the current flows.

The repeated interactions between hydrogen and boron atoms in theannular region produce sufficient fusion reactions to yield energetichelium nuclei which can be used in a direct conversion to electricity ora source of heat for energy production. The low % ionization, the highdriving force F in thousands of newtons and the repeated interactions athigh neutral densities combine to make this a system without pollutionand minimal radioactive wastes. Hydrogen and boron are both plentifuland non-radioactive stable elements. The fusion product, energeticdoubly-charged helium nuclei, lend themselves to direct conversion toelectricity with high efficiency.

This device requires only a simple capital outlay consisting of asuperconducting magnet and a DC power supply. It can operate in varioussizes from 50 cm size to 10's meters, depending on the application.

Another aneutronic reactor uses the proton lithium (p-Li⁶) reactionswith products of He³ and He⁴. The ease of coating of Li on electrodesinside chamber might be an advantage of sources and sinks in certainapplications.

The above technology of using a predominant amount of neutrals can alsobe applied to D-T, D-D fusion where the products include neutrons. Thecapital investment and operation cost will be higher because ofrequirements for shielding and handling of radioactive materials.However the larger cross sections at lower energies of these fusionreactions compensate somewhat for this higher capitalization andoperational cost.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows one configuration of a p-B¹¹ fusion device with concentricelectrodes.

FIG. 2 shows a high current multi-triggering discharge circuit to extendpulse duration

FIG. 3 shows a 6 kilovolt direct current power supply for continuouswave discharge.

FIG. 4 shows a 6 kilovolt 200 amp direct current power supply circuit.

FIG. 5 shows a pulsed and continuous wave combination discharge circuit.

FIG. 6 shows a typical plasma discharge monitored on the central rodusing the combination supply from FIG. 5.

FIG. 7 shows an alternate configuration of a fusion reactor inaccordance with the present invention; and

FIG. 8 shows a schematic diagram of a system for supplying hydrogen to afusion device in accordance with the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Typical designs of pulse supplies and CW supplies used to producepre-ionization and sustained rotation of the plasma are illustrated inFIGS. 2-4.

FIG. 1 shows a configuration of a p-B¹¹ fusion device with concentricelectrodes. A superconducting magnet 11 is provided capable ofgenerating an axial magnetic field. The chamber 5 has a cooling input 1.The chamber 5 also has a gas input 2. An electrical power supply 12 isconnected to discharge rod 3. An expanded discharge rod 8 is provided inchamber 5. Element 4 is an insulator. Element 6 is an external dischargerod. Element 7 denotes Boron discs. Element 10 illustrates a Borontarget. Element 9 illustrates a plasma.

Multiple pulse supplies are triggered sequentially to produce a sequenceof pulses for sustaining a high rotation rate. The timing of the pulsesis such that before the conductivity of the plasma decays to a low valuethe next pulse is turned on to impart another radial current forrotation.

After the initial breakdown to create the plasma current the voltagerequired to maintain the flow is lowered such as shown in FIG. 6,thereby lowering the power requirement. In this scheme only a low %ionization (10⁻⁵) is required. The recombination rate between ions andelectrons is minimum because of ions and electrons are surrounded byneutrals. The power to maintain such low % ionization is many times lessthan what is needed to maintain a fully ionized medium.

The rotations of neutrals and ions are diagnosed using a camera withfast shutter speeds up to 100,000/s. By following a given inhomogeneitythe rotation rate can be estimated. Another method is to use “lasertagging”. A laser is tuned to a given wavelength which matches either anion line or a neutral line. The resonant scattering at a differentwavelength is monitored in space and time using the fast camera with afilter. Alternately a spectrometer and a fiber tuned to a givenwavelength can also be used.

Each element has both rotating and stationary distributions such thatthe rotating boron species collides with the stationary hydrogen speciesand vice versa. The stationary component of B¹¹ is provided at the innerand outer electrodes, while the rotating component B¹¹ is provided byJ×B force. A continuous stream of hydrogen is fed from a pressure tankto produce background pressures of 1-10 Torr.

The repeated interactions between these rotating boron and stationaryhydrogen and rotating hydrogen and stationary boron give rise to a highrate of fusion as represented in the following equation:dW/dt=n _(p) n _(b) σvY rate of fusion/cm³ sec

-   -   where n_(p), n_(b) are the densities of protons and borons        respectively;    -   σ is the fusion cross section at a particular energy E    -   v is the relative velocity between proton and boron,    -   Y is the energy yield per fusion reaction=8.7 MeV

It should be noted that n_(p) represents both hydrogen ions and neutralsbecause for fusion reactions either neutrals or ions can participate infusion.

The fusion break-even condition is given by the fusion output beinggreater than the energy input per unit volume:dW/dt>V _(in) I _(in) /Vwhere

-   -   V_(in)=Voltage applied between two concentric electrodes    -   I_(in)=Radial current due to the applied voltage V_(in)    -   V=Volume of rotating region where neutrals and ions are being        driven by J×B force; energy input comes from the DC voltage and        current applied between the two electrodes.

The operating magnetic field is usually between 0.5-3 T. Initialionization by electrons along the axial magnetic field might be used toprovide electrons and ions for pre-ionization. The plasma impedancebetween the two concentric cylinders is lowered such that a radialcurrent flows between the concentric cylinders. This radial dischargecurrent across the magnetic field takes place primarily via iontransport across the strong magnetic field because ions have much largerorbit than electrons. The force J×B causes ions to rotate in theazimuthal direction. At high densities frequent collisions between ionsand neutrals make them rotate together.

In our laboratory plasma a 0.1 ohm resistance and a radial current of 10KA were observed for a voltage of 1 KV. This current gives rise to aforce of 10,000 newtons in a field of 2T and a radius of 50 cm. Underthis strong driving force Boron ions and neutrals can attain an energyof 100 KeV in 10 ms. This range of energy allows fusion to take place.

Boron atoms rotating at 3×10⁵ revolutions/s at a radius of 50 cm willreach the energy of 100 KeV. Hydrogen-Boron fusion reaction can occurwhen high-pressure hydrogen gas is puffed in towards the rotatingannular region of Boron. The high densities (10¹⁸/cm³) of neutral boronand hydrogen atoms help sustain a significant fusion yield even thoughthe cross section is only 3×10⁻²⁸ cm².

In the rotating region where all the particles rotate at the same rate,assuming a solid body rotation, there will be low relative velocitiesamong elements for fusion unless the Coulomb barrier is reduced byelectron screening as explained below. However without such reductionthe relative velocities between rotating Boron and ambient hydrogenatoms would be required to be high enough for fusion to take place. Arate of reaction depends on the energy of B¹¹ and hydrogen. The devicecan be operated at high neutral densities of hydrogen and boron becauseinstabilities due to space charges are not present. A high voltage isapplied either in pulses or steady state or a combination of both pulsesand steady voltages, with a resultant radial current flowing between thedischarge rod 8 and the discharge rod 6, which function as electrodes.The radial current produces a strong torque to push ions in theazimuthal direction, causing collisions with neutrals and co-rotation ofthe neutrals with the ions. The power supply further produces acontinuous chain of pulses, such that the radial current is sustained soas to produce a continuous driving force to rotate ion and neutrals. Acombination of pulses and CW voltages are used to maximize theefficiency between rotating energy and the input electrical energy;pulses are used to sustain the number of ions in the system and CWvoltages are used to maintain the rotation. The fusion reaction producesenergetic alpha particles (He⁴), which are used for direct conversion toelectrical energy; and the slowing down of these alphas yields acharging current in a power supply.

If we take n_(p), n_(b)=10¹⁸/cm³ and σ=3×10⁻²⁸ cm² (assumed 100 KeV ofenergy for Boron) and relative speed between hydrogen and boron v=10⁸cm/s we have dW/dt=3×10¹⁶/s cm³×8.7 MeV=5×10³ J/s cm³

Our proof-of-principle experiment lasts for 1 ms in a volume of 3×10³cm³ the power released is estimated to be 15 KJ.

The energy input is 2.5 KV and 4000 A or 10 MW for 0.1 ms which is equalto 1 KJ.

If we can accelerate borons to 200 KeV the cross section is increased to1.5×10⁻²⁶ cm² or 30 fold increase in cross section. If the energy inputis doubled then the energy multiplication is estimated to beapproximately 200.

Number of He Nuclei to be Detected

The number of total reactions in 1 ms in a volume of 3×10³ cm³ is equalto 9×10¹⁶. The product of reactions in He nuclei is 2.7×10¹⁷.

The density of He particles is 0.9×10¹⁴/cm³ or 10⁻³ Torr/ms pulse. Thisdensity of He is detectable by a quadrupole mass spectrometer of RGA(residual gas analyzer). The population of He particles is increasedwith the number of pulses, when the volume is not pumped.

A method of estimating the maximum velocity of rotation of neutralsgained during the acceleration by J×B force or I L B where I is theradial current, L is the length of the current and B is the fieldperpendicular to I is as follows:

For our current pulsed experiments where helium is to be observedoptically the following parameters are used: I=10⁴ A, L=0.5 m, B=3 TF=1.5×10⁴ N.

Acceleration is F/m=0.5×10⁹ m/s², where m is the mass of borons andhydrogen at density of 10¹⁸/cm³ and is equal to 3.3×10⁻⁵ kg.

For 2 ms of acceleration v=½ a t=10⁶ m/s. This justifies the assumptionof v=10⁸ cm/s assumed above in our calculation of fusion events. Thisvelocity corresponds to Boron energy of 100 KeV.

For hydrogen-boron fusion the cross sections “sigma” are:

-   -   At 200 KeV sigma is 1.6×10⁻² Barn    -   At 100 KeV sigma is 3×10⁻⁴ Barn    -   At 50 KeV sigma is 10⁻⁶ Barn    -   1 barn is 10⁻²⁴ cm².

For DD reactions the fusion cross section is:

-   -   At 50 KeV sigma is 10⁴ barns

For DT reactions the fusion cross section is

-   -   At 10 KeV sigma is 10⁵ barns

ADDITIONAL EMBODIMENTS

Applicable Fusion Reactions

The embodiments above primarily consider the p-B¹¹ fusion reaction,involving hydrogen nuclei (protons) and boron nuclei, as described bythe equation:p+B ¹¹→3He⁴+8.68 MeVThe reactants (e.g., hydrogen and boron) may be in solid (powder,nanoparticles, or other), liquid, or gaseous state, may be mixed in asolution with water or any other solvent, and may be present inelemental form or in any chemical compound. For example, boron is oftenfound in borate minerals, including borax, kernite, ulexite, colemanite,and boracite, any of which could be used to provide boron fuel into thefusion reactor described above (hereinafter referred to as the “AlphaUnit”). In addition, other boron compounds which are not borateminerals, including but not limited to elemental boron, lanthanumhexaboride, and boron nitride, could be used.

Additionally, the Alpha Unit is suitable for use with all other fusionreactions, both neutronic and aneutronic, including (but not limitedto):D+T→He⁴ +n+17.59 MeVD+D→T+p+4.04 MeVD+D→He³ +n+3.27 MeVD+D→He⁴+γ+23.85 MeVT+T→He⁴+2n+11.33 MeVD+He³→He⁴ +p+18.35 MeVp+Li⁶→He⁴+He³+4.02 MeVp+Li⁷→2He⁴+17.35 MeVp+p→D+e ⁺ +v+1.44 MeVD+p→He³+γ⇄5.49 MeVHe³+He³→He⁴+2p+12.86 MeVp+C¹²→N¹³+γ+1.94 MeV[N¹³→C¹³ +e ⁺ +v+γ+2.22 MeV]p+C¹³→N¹⁴+γ+7.55 MeVp+N¹⁴→O¹⁵+γ+7.29 MeV[O¹⁵→N¹⁵ +e ⁺ +v+γ+2.76 MeV]p+N¹⁵→C¹²+He⁴+4.97 MeVC¹²+C¹²→Na²³ +p+2.24 MeVC¹²+C¹²→Na²⁰+He⁴+4.62 MeVC¹²+C¹²→Mg²⁴+γ+13.93 MeVContinuous Vs. Batched Operation

Because all fusion reactions involve the consumption of fuel, tocontinue operating indefinitely the Alpha Unit must have its fuel supplyreplenished. There are two ways of achieving this:

1) Continuous operation, whereby fuel is added and fusion products areremoved continuously. In this mode of operation, the Alpha Unit wouldonly need to be shut down for maintenance, or in cases of operationalfailure.

2) Batched operation, whereby fuel is added prior to operation, theAlpha Unit is run, and operations are ceased when a certain proportionof the fuel (up to 100%) has been consumed. Once the device has stoppedoperating, the fusion products would be removed, new fuel added, and, asneeded, maintenance performed. This mode of operation would require moreoperational cessations than the continuous mode of operation, but wouldsimplify the fuel loading and fusion product removal processes.

Pulsed Vs. Continuous Voltage

In past operation, the reactions in the Alpha Unit have been prompted bya series of short-duration pulses of voltage on the inner electrode toinduce a plasma current between the inner and outer electrodes and causethe fluid inside the Alpha Unit to rotate. However, as an alternative,the Alpha Unit could be run with a continuous supply of voltage to theinner electrode.

Fusion/Fission Hybrids

Some fission reactions, for example the thorium fission cycle, rely on alarge flow of high-energy particles (e.g., neutrons, protons, alphaparticles) to drive the reaction. Such reactions may have advantagesover conventional nuclear fission fuel cycles in that they involve onlytrace amounts of radioactive material, which are insufficient to drive anuclear chain reaction.

The Alpha Unit could be used to drive these fission reactions byproviding the supply of high-energy particles. For example, when usingthe p-B11 reaction, a mixture of doubly-charged He4 (α particles), andcharged and neutral boron and hydrogen nuclei could be directed out ofthe Alpha Unit and into a separate reactor containing the fission fuel.The energy generated by the fission reaction could be used independentlyfrom, or in combination with, energy extracted from the Alpha Unit (forelectricity generation, industrial heat, or other useful purposes).

Materials of Construction

A key component of the Alpha Unit is a magnet which could be asuperconducting magnet (including use of same from retrofitted MRImachines), a permanent magnet, an electromagnet or other suitable typeof magnet. The other components consist of a chamber wall, and an outerand an inner electrode. Auxiliary components such as a power supply,fuel input rod, and cooling systems may also be present.

In general, structural integrity and tolerance to high temperatures willbe important criteria in selecting materials of construction. In thecase of the electrodes, high conductivity will also be a criticalfactor. As a result, metals are likely to be ideal for some or all ofthe components. However, alternatives such as composites, ceramics, orplastics may also be useful in some cases. The design of the Alpha Unitis not specific to any one set of materials.

Elimination of Components

The design of the Alpha Unit described above includes an inner and outerelectrode to conduct a plasma current, as well as a superconductingmagnet to create an axial magnetic field. However, it is possible toeliminate one or more of these components by using a current drive. Forexample, rotation could be induced by creating an AC magnetic field witha rotating current, causing ions to rotate via resonant coupling, andeliminating the need for a magnet and inner electrode.

Geometry and Scale

The embodiments above envision the Alpha Unit as a cylinder. While thismay well be an optimal design, the Alpha Unit could also be operatedwith other geometries, such as an oval cross-section, or a torus, solong as particles are able to rotate around the device.

Since fusion reactions happen on a nuclear level (˜10-15 m), there isalmost no fundamental limit to the scale (large and small) at which anAlpha Unit could be implemented. For example, an Alpha Unit might beapplied on a nano-level, such that it could be used to provide power toelectronic circuitry, or for other purposes; or implemented on a verylarge scale where it could, for example, satisfy the electricityrequirements of entire cities, regions or countries using one or moreAlpha Units. Changes in scale could be achieved by increasing ordecreasing the length of the Alpha Unit, increasing or decreasing itsdiameter, doing both, or (in the case of scaling up) by using multiplemodules. Similar adjustments could be made to versions of the Alpha Unitwith non-cylindrical geometries.

Energy Extraction

Direct Energy Conversion

Many fusion reactions produce high-energy charged particles, which canbe directly converted to usable electricity using electromagnetic means(e.g., by inducing an electrical current in a nearby wire).). Chargedparticles from fusion have energy in the MeV range and have lowcollision frequencies with background medium and therefore undergomotion dictated by the background electric and magnetic fields, even ina normally collisional environment. One notable concept developed byresearchers at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory involves chargedparticles being selectively removed, guided away from the plasma inwhich fusion reactions are taking place using a magnetic field, anddecelerated by retarding electric fields. The energy given up by theparticles during deceleration is converted to an electrical current.Such a concept could be used with the Alpha Unit, either independentlyor in combination with other direct energy conversion techniques and/orthermal energy conversion techniques. The direct energy conversion couldbe significantly more efficient at producing electrical energy than themaximum efficiency of a thermal energy conversion technique. Severalnovel adaptations of the Alpha Unit to create direct energy conversionare proposed herein, and are listed and described below.

Charged particles (for example, doubly-charged He⁴ (α particles) moveaxially, as a result of their high energy, in addition to high-speedazimuthal rotation induced by the magnetic field and plasma current inthe Alpha Unit. Charged particles created as a product of fusionreactions have much higher energy than other charged particles orneutrals which are not produced by fusion reactions. Thus, thesehigh-energy charged particles (such as a particles in the case of thep-B¹¹ reaction) move axially at much higher average speeds than otherparticles in the Alpha Unit. This axial movement of charged particlesmay be directly converted to electricity, for example by creating anelectric field opposing the flow of charges outward from the electrodes.

Additionally, the kinetic energy of charged particles rotatingazimuthally can be captured by similar means. For example, the batteriesor electric fields referred to above can be used to create an electricfield opposing the rotation of charged particles. These batteries couldbe placed about the section of the Alpha Unit containing the electrodesand/or about the sections without the electrodes. This could be doneseparately from, or in conjunction with, the system described above.

To optimize direct energy conversion, it is desirable to control thepath of the charged fusion products (e.g., alpha particles). One way todo this is to overlay the cyclotron frequency of the alpha particles ontop of a DC voltage created on the inner electrode, generating anelectromagnetic wave at the cyclotron frequency. By tuning the phase ofthis electromagnetic wave at the cyclotron frequency, it is possible toadjust the paths of the charged fusion products such that they rotate ina controlled fashion, allowing direct energy conversion to be optimized.

Similarly, resonance with the intrinsic nuclear spin of the fuel orproduct nuclei (for example, hydrogen, boron, and helium in the case ofthe p-B¹¹ reaction) may be used to increase or decrease the number offusion reactions or control the paths of the particles in such a way asto increase the efficiency of energy recovery.

The radius of the chamber to either side of the electrodes may be keptthe same as in the section containing the electrodes, or it may belarger or smaller. For example, the radius of the chamber might beincreased in the direction axially away from the section containing theelectrodes, and the resonant frequency of fusion products (for example,alpha particles in the case of the p-B11 reaction) could be used toexcite them to rotate in increasingly large orbits as they move axiallyaway from the electrodes. This could result in enhanced efficiency andefficacy of the direct energy conversion.

In any direct energy conversion scheme, it is likely to be desirable tominimize the density of neutrals near charged fusion products (forexample, in the case of the p-B11 reaction, minimizing the density ofneutrals near the charged alpha particles) to reduce the transfer ofcharged particle energy to neutrals (since the reduced charged particleenergy will reduce the energy available for recovery at higherefficiencies by means of direct energy conversion rather than at lowerefficiency with a thermal process). However, it is desirable to increasethe density of neutrals near charged fuel particles (for example,hydrogen/protons in the case of the p-B¹¹ reaction) so as to induce thereaction in the first place. Several configurations, listed below, maybe used to optimize this situation, either independently or incombination with one another.

Fuel (for example, hydrogen) can be introduced directly into the annularspace between the two electrodes in controlled amounts during operation.Much of this fuel will be consumed before it escapes the section of theAlpha Unit containing the electrodes, or is able to enter the annularspace between the outer electrode and the chamber wall. Charged fusionproducts (e.g., alpha particles) which enter these portions of the AlphaUnit will thus encounter few fuel particles (the vast majority of whichare neutral).

Fuel (for example, hydrogen) can be introduced into the Alpha Unit in ashort, controlled burst, perhaps injected in the radial direction. Avacuum could be drawn, perhaps from the annular space between the innerand outer electrodes, to remove particles. Because highly charged fusionproducts (e.g., alpha particles) are more likely to exit this annulusthan lower-energy fuel particles, the vacuum would draw out adisproportionately low fraction of fusion products. As a result, thefusion products remaining in the Alpha Unit would encounter fewneutrals, allowing for greater direct conversion of energy.

A schematic drawing of a potential Alpha Unit configuration, including achamber of varying radius as described above, is shown in FIG. 7. Thedrawing assumes the use of a p-B¹¹ reaction, although other reactionscould be used. The drawing also includes vacuum pumps and safety valveson either side of the chamber, which could be used to avoid unsafepressure buildup within the Alpha Unit.

Since the proportion of charged fusion products relative to neutralswithin the annular space between the two electrodes is likely to bedifferent from that proportion in other spaces within the Alpha Unit,the dimension of the inner electrode, outer electrode, and chamber wallmay be modified to change the volumes of these spaces relative to oneanother and reduce the incidence of charged fusion products collidingwith neutrals. Control systems and outer annular space geometry may beoptimized to facilitate gas evacuation so as to minimize chargedparticle collisions with neutral particles thereby minimize otherwiseavoidable energy transfer.

Thermal Energy Conversion

The energy produced during fusion reactions which is not captured usingdirect energy conversion will become thermal energy. Capture of thisthermal energy can be independent from, or performed in combinationwith, direct energy conversion. Thermal energy capture is a commonpractice in commercial applications (for example, fossil fuel-firedpower plants), and it could be done on the Alpha Unit in much the sameway. A working fluid (e.g., water, helium, sodium) could be passedthrough thermal coils, thermal jackets, or other heat transfer deviceslocated within or around the Alpha Unit to absorb thermal energy. Thehot working fluid passed out of the Alpha Unit could then be used withany number of devices to convert its thermal energy into mechanicalmotion directly or by means of a secondary loop. The mechanical motionof these devices could be used directly (e.g., to turn a wheel), orindirectly (e.g., to turn a conventional generator to produceelectricity). These devices include, but are not limited to, thefollowing:

-   -   Steam turbine    -   Stirling engine (either to drive a separate electric generator        or to have the piston in the Stirling engine fashioned as a        magnet so as to create electricity from the motion of the        magnet)    -   Free piston engine    -   Thermocouple

A single device listed above could be used, or one or more devices couldbe used in combination with each other. One or more devices could alsobe used for secondary, tertiary, etc. thermal energy recovery usingwaste heat from other devices. Alternatively, the thermal energy couldbe used directly to supply heat for industrial processes, for spaceheating in buildings or for water desalination.

An Alpha Unit could also be used in combination with a separate heattransfer device to provide auxiliary heat. For example, thermal energyfrom the Alpha Unit could be added to the combustor or inlet section ofa combustion turbine, either by placing the Alpha Unit within suchsection or by transferring the heat using a working fluid. Similarly,the Alpha Unit could be used as an auxiliary heat source for aconventional thermal power plant, either to pre-heat steam or anotherworking fluid passed into the boiler, or by adding the heat directly tothe boiler.

Fuel Supply

Fusion fuel can be supplied to the Alpha Unit using purchased materials(for example, in the case of the p-B¹¹ reaction, using pressurizedhydrogen gas cylinders and solid pieces of boron compound, amongst otheroptions). Alternatively, it may be possible to integrate one or moredevices to provide fuel. For example:

-   -   Hydrogen for the p-B¹¹ reaction could be supplied with an        electrolysis system or a thermal dissociation system integrated        with an Alpha Unit and powered by the Alpha Unit, or by a        smaller, auxiliary Alpha Unit, or by a separate source of        electricity.    -   Hydrogen for the p-B¹¹ reaction could be supplied using an        integrated spin system (as described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,298,318        and U.S. Patent Publication No. 2013/0047783, both incorporated        herein by reference in their entireties) whereby water, or        another compound containing hydrogen, would be rotated at a rate        sufficient to separate the hydrogen from the other elements in        the compound. A schematic diagram illustrating this concept is        shown in FIG. 8. As shown, a supply of water is applied to the        electromagnetic spin system (EMSS—described in detail in the        '318 and '783 documents), which produces a supply of hydrogen.        The hydrogen is supplied to an Alpha Unit, together with Boron,        which are used in a fusion reaction to generate electricity.        Part of the electricity produced is used to operate the EMSS.    -   Hydrogen for the p-B¹¹ reaction could also be supplied by using        compounds such as sodium borohydride, which produces hydrogen        when mixed with water.    -   By creating the hydrogen by means of a system ancilliary to the        Alpha Unit, the fueling of the Alpha Unit will not be dependent        upon a hydrogen fuel tank nor upon the development of hydrogen        fueling infrastructure. Similar techniques could be used to        integrate production of non-hydrogen fusion fuels with the Alpha        Unit, eliminating the need to develop specialized fueling        infrastructures for those compounds as well.        Positive Feedback Mechanisms

Space Charge Effect

Results of operating the Alpha Unit with the p-B¹¹ reaction suggest thatoperation of the device is enhanced by a space charge effect. Many boroncompounds (as well as materials which do not contain boron) will emitelectrons when heated. The intense centrifugal force present within thedevice causes these electrons to form a “cloud” near the wall of theouter electrode. This electron cloud—a space charge—attracts ions, whichin the operation of the Alpha Units have included both boron andhydrogen ions. As a result, the boron and hydrogen ions are drawn intoclose contact in this “negative potential well.” The close contact ofthe nuclei in this well increases the probability of quantum tunneling,effectively reducing the Coulomb barrier and intensifying the rate offusion reactions. The thermal energy generated by these fusion reactionsfurther heats the boron compound, causing it to emit more electrons andfurther increasing the rate of reactions.

Ionization of Fuel Particles

In addition to the space charge effect, operation of the Alpha Unit withthe p-B¹¹ reaction has also revealed a phenomenon by which production offusion products enhances the operation of the device. For example, whenalpha particles are produced by p-boron fusion events, they tend toionize hydrogen atoms. The greater ion density near the outer wall ofthe annulus of the Alpha Unit decreases the resistivity of the gaseousmixture, increasing the magnitude of the plasma current withoutconsuming additional energy to increase the voltage of the innerelectrode. The larger plasma current, in turn, increases the Lorentzforce in the device, increasing rotational speeds and leading to morefusion events.

Positive Feedback

Together, the space charge effect and ionization of fuel particlescreate a positive feedback to enhance the operation of the Alpha Unit.When, in the case of the p-B¹¹ reaction, a boron compound is heated, itreleases electrons that form a space charge near the outer electrode.The negative potential well created by this space charge brings boronand hydrogen into close contact, increasing the incidence of quantumtunneling, effectively lowering the Coulomb barrier, and increasing therate of fusion reactions. The charged particles created by the reactions(e.g., alpha particles in the case of p-B¹¹) ionize fuel atoms (e.g.,hydrogen in the case of p-B¹¹), reducing resistivity, increasing theplasma current and Lorentz force, and further increasing the rate offusion reactions without an increase in energy input. The increased rateof fusion reactions, in turn, magnifies the space charge effect and fuelparticle ionization, which leads to further fusion.

Enhancements to Encourage Positive Feedback

Since the positive feedback mechanisms help to drive performance of theAlpha Unit, enhancing the feedback is likely to be desirable. While someof the boron compounds we have used (e.g., boron nitride, lanthanumhexaboride) are good electron emitters, even better electron emittersexist, and these compounds could be used to increase the space chargeeffect. Excellent electron emitters, including but not limited tographene, could be chemically combined with the fuel target (e.g., boronnitride), or could be fabricated as a composite with the fuel target(i.e., the fuel and electron emitter are physically but not chemicallybonded). Additionally, this material (fuel target, with or withoutaddition of electron emitter) could be adhered to the wall of the outerelectrode (as in our past operation), or the outer electrode coulditself be fabricated out of the material (such that the electrode wouldbe gradually consumed by the fusion reactions). In alternateconfigurations of the device, the inner electrode, chamber wall, orother components of the Alpha Unit could be composed of consumablefusion fuel, or a composite or compound containing fusion fuel and othermaterials. Similarly, the design of the Alpha Unit could be optimized(e.g., by the choice of fuel compound, placement of the fuel,geometrical design of the electrodes and chamber) to enhance fuelparticle ionization, further contributing to positive feedback.

Reaction Product Separation/Removal

In many cases, the materials created as a result of a fusion reactionwill have no use once their energy has been removed to the extentdesired through direct and/or thermal energy conversion, and may, infact, inhibit the operation of the device. For example, in the p-B¹¹reaction, helium created by the reaction may not be intended for anyadditional reactions, and its presence may reduce the number of p-boronreactions taking place. As a result, it may be desirable to selectivelyremove fusion products from the Alpha Unit to maintain high partialpressures of the reactants.

Such removal could take many forms, and could depend upon the particularreaction being used in the Alpha Unit. For example, commercial hydrogenfilters exist which are selectively permeable to hydrogen but not largernuclei. Such a filter could be applied within the Alpha Unit to creatediffering proportions of fusion products to non-fusion products oneither side of the filter, allowing the fusion product-rich stream to beremoved from the device. Such a filter might also be useful in enhancingdirect energy conversion (since the presence of neutrals vs. chargedfusion products degrades conversion efficiency), and/or could be used torecirculate fuel-rich mixtures to the electrode section of the AlphaUnit for consumption. Similar filters designed to be selectivelypermeable to different atoms or molecules could be used for operation ofthe Alpha Unit with both the p-B11 reaction and in other fusionreactions. Multiple filters designed for one or more atoms/moleculescould also be used in combination with one another.

Additionally, in many reactions the fusion products (such as helium inthe case of the p-B¹¹ reaction) will be some of the lightest atoms inthe system, particularly once many reactions have occurred (e.g., whenmuch of the hydrogen has been consumed in the p-B¹¹ reaction). As aresult, these fusion products will tend to concentrate near the innerelectrode, where they can be easily removed. Alternatively, in reactionswhere the fusion products tend to be amongst the heaviest atoms in thesystem, they will tend to concentrate near the outer electrode, and theycan be easily removed from this site as well. In either case, theseparation efficiency of the Alpha Unit will assist in removing a highproportion of the fusion products without removing a high proportion ofthe fusion fuel.

Monitoring and Control Systems

Effective operation of the Alpha Unit will require the ability tomonitor and control the device. Many different techniques may be used,including:

-   -   MRI/NMR. For example, proton NMR could be used to measure the        movement of hydrogen atoms in 3 dimensions, in real-time, within        the device. In cases such as p-B¹¹ which use hydrogen as a fuel,        this could be useful to monitor the disappearance of the protons        (indicating consumption in fusion reactions), as well as for        other purposes.    -   Optical sensors, such as ultra-high speed cameras. For example,        during the operation of our Alpha Units, we record p-B¹¹        reactions using an ultra-high speed camera with one or more        helium filters, which selectively pass light at helium's        spectral frequency. Light intensity in the camera's field of        view corresponds to the number of helium nuclei present at a        particular point (which correlates to the number of fusion        reactions taking place, energy generated, etc.).    -   Heat/temperature sensors, which could be useful for monitoring        integrity of materials, rate of energy generation, cooling        system performance, etc.    -   Control systems integrated with MRI/NMR, optical sensors,        heat/temperature sensors, or other sensors to control operating        parameters (e.g., rate of fuel input, rate of fusion product        removal, flow of working fluid for thermal energy capture,        amplitude and duration of pulses applied to the inner        electrode).        Applications

Electricity Generation

The most obvious application of the Alpha Unit is in stationaryelectricity generation applications, including:

-   -   New build power plants, either central (utility-scale) or        distributed (e.g., building-scale). These plants may be in        rural, suburban, or urban settings on land, or may be applied in        sub-sea environments. In distributed generation applications, a        building relying on electricity from one or more Alpha Units        might choose to avoid connecting to the power grid, since the        Alpha Units would be capable of satisfying 100% of the        building's electricity need.    -   Repowering of existing nuclear, coal-fired, gas-fired, and other        conventional power plants. In this case, the switchyard,        transmission interconnection, generators, and other components        of the existing power plant might continue to be used, with only        the boiler being removed and replaced with one or more Alpha        Units.

Because of its flexible size and relatively simple construction, theAlpha Unit could also be used to generate electricity in non-stationarysettings. For example:

-   -   Mobile electronic devices (e.g., cell phones, laptop computers,        tablets)    -   Transportation devices/vehicles (cars, buses, trains, planes,        lighter-than-air aircraft, helicopters, ships, submarines,        satellites, spacecraft, space stations, etc.)    -   As a replacement for pumps (e.g., self-propelled pigs for        pipelines)

Propelling Device

The Alpha Unit is primarily contemplated as a closed device wherebyenergy generated by fusion reactions is extracted from the Alpha Unitusing either direct energy conversion or thermal energy conversion.Alternatively, an Alpha Unit could be used as a device to propel anobject attached to the Alpha Unit (e.g., a vehicle, either on Earth orin space) by directing a flow of particles out of the Alpha Unit. Thehigh velocities of particles within the Alpha Unit would result in alarge reactive force when those particles are directed outward,propelling the Alpha Unit and the object to which it is attached at ahigh rate of speed.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of causing fusion between particles,comprising: providing an elongated chamber located in a magnetic field;providing a target in said elongated chamber; supplying hydrogen gasinto said elongated chamber; creating a plasma of ions and neutrals fromsaid hydrogen gas in said chamber by applying energy into said chamberfrom a source of energy; said plasma of ions being caused to rotatearound an axis within the elongated chamber due to the energy appliedinto the chamber, said neutrals being driven to rotate in the samedirection by ion-neutral coupling; providing an electron emitter in saidchamber configured to emit a quantity of electrons in said chamber undertemperature conditions sufficient to reduce a Coulomb barrier betweentwo approaching nuclei in said plasma by virtue of the collectivenegative charges of said quantity of electrons; said rotation of ionsand neutrals in said chamber being configured to induce a force thatcauses hydrogen atoms and protons in said chamber to impinge againstsaid electron emitter; wherein a fusion reaction is caused to occurbetween neutral particles in said plasma and said target.
 2. The methodof claim 1, wherein the source of energy is a radio frequency source. 3.The method of claim 1, wherein the source of energy is a microwavesource.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the source of energy is anelectric field source.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the source ofenergy is an ion gun.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the source ofenergy is a laser.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein voltage pulses areused to maintain the number of ions in the chamber, and a continuouswave voltage is used to maintain the rotation of said plasma of ions andneutrals.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein fusion reactants arecomprised of a majority of neutral atoms or molecules and a minority ofpositive ions, the method further causes a concentration of said fusionreactants in a localized volume layer adjacent to the surface of thechamber via a sustained force so that a sustained, periodic orintermittent high density of fusion reactants is formed in said chamber.9. The method of claim 8, wherein axial movement of charged particles insaid chamber is converted to electricity by creation of an electricfield opposing the flow of charges outward from electrodes in saidchamber through a helical field opposing the motion of energeticparticles of helical orbits.
 10. The method of claim 1, furthercomprising controlling operating parameters within said chamber such asrate of fuel input, rate of fusion product removal, flow of workingfluid for thermal energy capture, via a control system integrated withMRI/NMR, magnetic and optical sensors, and heat/temperature sensors. 11.The method of claim 1, wherein the electrons emitted from the electronemitter are restricted to a wall of an outer electrode of said chamberby rotating neutrals during the rotation so that a high density layer ofelectrons is formed adjacent to said outer electrode.
 12. A method ofcausing fusion primarily between neutral particles, comprising:providing a target in an elongated chamber; supplying a gas into saidchamber, creating a plasma of ions and neutrals from said gas in saidchamber by applying energy into said chamber from a source of energy,where the ratio of neutrals to ions is greater than 1; providingoscillating electric and magnetic fields to said chamber to cause saidplasma of ions to rotate around an axis within the elongated chamber dueto the said energy applied into the chamber, said neutrals being drivento rotate in the same direction by ion-neutral coupling; providing anelectron emitter in said chamber configured to emit a quantity ofelectrons in said chamber under temperature conditions sufficient toreduce a Coulomb barrier between two approaching nuclei in said plasmaby virtue of the collective negative charges of said quantity ofelectrons; said rotation of ions and neutrals in said chamber beingconfigured to induce a force that causes at least neutrals in saidchamber to impinge against said emitter and said target, wherein afusion reaction is caused to occur between neutral particles in saidplasma and said target.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein saidoscillating electric and magnetic fields are caused to oscillate at thesame speed, synchronously with rotating ions and neutrals.
 14. Themethod of claim 12, wherein said gas comprises hydrogen.
 15. The methodof claim 12, wherein said positively charged nucleons comprise protons.16. A method of causing fusion between particles, comprising: providingan elongated chamber located in an oscillating electromagnetic field;providing a target in said elongated chamber; supplying a first materialgas into said elongated chamber; creating a plasma of ions and neutralsfrom said first material gas in said chamber by applying energy intosaid chamber from a source of energy; said plasma of ions being causedto rotate around an axis within the elongated chamber due to theoscillating electromagnetic field applied into the chamber, saidneutrals being driven to rotate in the same direction by ion-neutralcoupling, wherein the ratio of neutrals to ions is greater than 1;providing an electron emitter in said chamber configured to emit aquantity of electrons in said chamber under temperature conditionssufficient to reduce a Coulomb barrier between two approaching nuclei insaid plasma by virtue of the collective negative charges of saidquantity of electrons; said rotation of first material atoms and protonsin said chamber being configured to induce a force that causes firstmaterial atomic particles in said chamber to impinge against saidelectron emitter; wherein a fusion reaction is caused to occur betweenneutral particles in said plasma and said target.
 17. The method ofclaim 16, wherein the first material gas comprises hydrogen.
 18. Themethod of claim 16, wherein the target comprises lanthanum hexaboride.19. The method of claim 1, wherein said elongated chamber has a varyingradius.
 20. The method of claim 12, wherein said elongated chamber has avarying radius.
 21. The method of claim 16, wherein said elongatedchamber has a varying radius.